Developing Capacity in Applied Biology: The Role and Application of Modern Information, Communication and Educational Technologies

Paper presented at the "International Workshop on Biology", Hanoi, Vietnam, 2-5 July 2001. Conference jointly organized by Vietnam Union of Science and Technology Associations, Vietnam Union of Biology Associations and Centre for Information and Technology Transfer in Biology.

Robert T. Raab, W. Wyn Ellis and Buenafe R. Abdon

Introduction

"Our health, our sustenance and our environment are all based on biological processes. We can improve each of these by wisely applying biological knowledge. Human economic activities that involve biological processes are very economically important - agriculture, medicine, the food industry, the fermented drinks industry, the hot drinks industry, the tobacco industry, the recreational drugs industry (illegal but still a global industry), the natural fabric industry, etc. All of these economic activities have gained from the purposeful application of scientific knowledge. Likewise there are many other non manufacturing industries that involve biology and where biological knowledge can be usefully exploited - waste processing (sewage works, landfills, etc.) and tourism immediately come to mind" (Firn, undated).

This statement aptly illustrates the role, importance and wide influence of applied biology. Applied biology can take credit for innovations leading to improvements in the quality of life as well as the economic benefits they generate. As Longo, et. al. (1997) note, "Since the nineteenth century, science is no longer just a cultural asset but became increasingly important basis for economic progress due to successful systematic and large scale appropriation of scientific knowledge for technology development."

It is this potential of applied biology to result in both social and economic improvements that make it so appealing to both the public and private sectors. Corporations, developed and developing countries all realize that strengthening capacity in applied biology can return substantial dividends. But they are also realizing that achieving this capacity is not an easy task. It requires significant investments in infrastructure and, most importantly, an educational system that develops human resources with the necessary knowledge and skills.

Education and training are therefore primary considerations for any country or corporation wanting to develop and maintain capacity in this competitive and lucrative area. This includes formal education to provide foundation skills and continuing education to help graduates avoid professional obsolescence. But the fast growth in knowledge in all areas of applied biology presents a challenge for educational efforts. There are not enough educators with the skills and knowledge to prepare the new generation of applied biologists under the old bricks and mortar model of higher education. And graduates in many fields of applied biology find it difficult to keep up with new advances in their chosen fields and easily lose their competitiveness.

Fortunately, advances in information, communication and educational technologies offer opportunities and tools to address this situation, and their application is showing progress in meeting the educational needs of current and future R&D personnel. Internet-based information, communication and educational technologies are being widely employed in the developed nations and are beginning to make a difference in the research and educational systems of developing countries. And the educational environment itself is changing. More and more, the private sector is assuming a greater role in the education of critically needed professionals.

Below we will discuss in more detail the rapidly evolving field of applied biology and the issues which characterise this field, the potential costs and benefits of developing capacity in applied biology, the role and limitations of traditional educational models, and new tools and alliances that can help to overcome these limitations. We conclude with a description of emerging intermediary educational institutions and highlight one of these active in the Asia Pacific region - the Asia Pacific Regional Technology Centre (APRTC).

Applied Biology

"Applied opticians and physicists are developing bioimaging technologies and exploiting the use of lasers in medical technologies. Chemical engineers are producing and purifying bioactive compounds using fermentation and bioseperation processes. Other bioactive and biodegradable compounds are being produced synthetically by chemists. Civil engineers are restoring and managing ecosystems. Computer engineers and computer scientists are key players in the burgeoning area of bioinformatics. Economists manage the multi-billion dollar finances associated with the biotechnology and health related industries. Electrical engineers are designing implantable devices for artificial neural and muscular stimulation. Mathematicians are addressing problems in biocomplexity, and structural and computational biology. And mechanical engineers are designing prosthetics and surgical devices. These represent only a few of the numerous opportunities that exist at the interface between biological sciences and engineering, mathematics and physical sciences. (Anthony, 2000)

No one can argue about the importance of applied biology - "the application of biological knowledge to help solve a problem" (Anthony, 2000). As the above quote illustrates, applied biologists are involved in some of the most exciting areas of science. Applied biology has made tremendous contributions to human society and has generated significant wealth for nations and private companies. Applied biology has given us 'wonder drugs' that have greatly eased human health problems and extended human life spans throughout the world. It has produced high yielding livestock, crops and cropping systems that have allowed us to avert wide spread starvation in at-risk regions. Applied biological technologies have contributed greatly to preserving our environment through such technologies as modern water purification and waste management systems.

Applied biology, in contrast to 'pure' science, is characterized by its emphasis on exploiting the known rather than probing the unknown and in solving problems. It generally results in 'products' that may be either tangible (drugs, chemicals, seeds) or intangible (knowledge, processes, management approaches) and which generally have commercial value. Applied biologists do science to solve problems and in response to needs. Outputs generally have implications for human lives and for the financial situation of whoever has supported the work.

But, many areas of modern applied biology, while promising great wonders, also offer the prospective of peril and appreciating this is important in understanding the field. This is perhaps most evident in what is now happening in agriculture. Particularly with advances in biologists' understanding and application of molecular biology and genetics, many of the products and processes that applied biologists are now working to develop are poorly understood and thus often viewed with suspicion and even fear. Biotechnology, which is often defined as simply 'applied biology' is particularly controversial and provides a rich example of the promise and perils of modern applied biology. The debate over the safety, benefits and risks of biotechnology is complex and extensive. While it is beyond the scope of this paper to deal with this topic in more detail, interested readers may want to read the following series of position papers to better understand the complex issues and diversity of viewpoints.

1. Ten reasons why biotechnology will not ensure food security, protect the environment and reduce poverty in the developing world. Altieri, M.A. and Rosset, P. (1999). AgBioForum, 2(3&4), 155-162. http://www.agbioforum.org/vol2no34/altieri.htm
2. Ten reasons why biotechnology will be important to the developing world. McGloughlin, M (1999). AgBioForum, 2(3&4), 163-174. http://www.agbioforum.org/vol2no34/mcgloughlin.htm
3. Strengthening the case for why biotechnology will not help the developing world: a response to McGloughlin. Altieri, M.A. and Rosset, P. (1999). AgBioForum, 2(3&4), 226-236. http://www.agbioforum.org/vol2no34/altierireply.htm

Costs and Benefits of Applied Biology

"The generation of scientific-based technologies requires intense and continuous capital investments on R&D for production of high quality goods and services, as well as to engage the most talented brains and managerial capacity to deal with a large spectrum of knowledge" (Longo, et. al., 1997).

Developing countries, whose economies are generally dominated by agriculture, can realize substantial economic and social returns to investments in applied biology, particularly in its application to agriculture. No country can ignore the potential of a strong applied biology R&D sector to contribute to national social and economic health and to enable it to take advantage of products borrowed or imported from outside. No corporation involved in the development of such products can overlook the potential for profits. "The capacity to transform inventions produced by themselves or by others into innovations in rather short periods of time can explain the economic success of enterprises and countries like Japan" (Longo. et.al, 1997).

But there is definitely a substantial financial cost over and above the potential environmental and social costs at the heart of the debate about many of the products associated with applied biology. Developing, and equally important, maintaining national capacity in applied biology is expensive. Countries and companies wanting to achieve this must be prepared to make, and continue to make, significant investments in facilities, infrastructure, communication and perhaps most importantly - education and human capital development.

Role of Education

"The readiness by which the nations through their universities and enterprises will be able to produce innovation from appropriation of scientific knowledge will be an essential factor to cope with the established competition" (Longo, et. al., 1997).

Underlying much of what has been discussed above is the critical importance of trained human resources in the development, application, commercialisation and dissemination of applied biology outputs. For developing countries, this most often means human resources in agriculture. Agricultural education is, therefore, of the utmost importance - both formal education to prepare individuals for a career in applied biology, and continuing education to keep working applied biologists up-to-date with scientific and technological advances.

But numerous studies indicate that agricultural education, particularly in developing countries, is beset by problems (Rogers, 1996; Rodríguez, 1999; Pretty, 1995). Lindley (1998) in a report synthesizing the results of a series of FAO organized regional round tables, expert consultations, and staff analyses describes the situation clearly,

"Poor quality training of agricultural professionals, technicians and producers has been identified as part of the global food security problem. Unfortunately, the training of human resources (the development of human capital) in agriculture is often not a high priority in the overall development plans of countries. As a result, curricula and teaching programmes are not necessarily relevant to the production needs and employment demands of the agricultural sector."

This same synthesis report identified a number of issues that are a concern as we move into the next century and advanced 3 major recommendations. These were that agricultural colleges and universities adopt:

1. a broad-based approach to "agricultural education".
2. innovative leadership including a greater involvement of the private sector and institutional partnerships, and
3. new educational strategies such as a greater application of distance learning and community development initiatives.
   

A discussion of these recommendations including some of the suggested actions contained in the original report is presented below.

Broad-based approach

Most of the report's suggestions were pertinent to the teaching of applied biology. It suggested that universities do more to produce 'problem solvers' able to diagnose the social and agricultural problems of the communities they serve and come up with solutions. Teaching needs to improve and must reflect "a better understanding and incorporation of the underlying psychological processes that influence learning, with special attention to experiential learning and participatory learning strategies that focus on inductive reasoning skills" (Lindsley).

It was further suggested that much more recognition be given to the increasing importance of commercialisation and globalisation. Job opportunities in the public sector are increasingly scarce and graduates must be given the skills needed to meet the expectations of employers in the private sector.

The need for educational institutions and faculty to keep pace with rapid scientific progress and technical change was also highlighted. Professors can no longer recycle antiquated knowledge acquired during their formal studies. They must continue to learn and keep current with advances in their fields and incorporate this information in their teaching. Related to this is the need to equip students with the skills and attitudes needed to become lifelong learners. Graduates who expect to spend their careers relying only on what they have learned through formal education are guaranteed to find themselves obsolete a few short years after graduation.

"The illiterate of the future are not those that cannot read or write...they are those that cannot learn, unlearn and relearn" (Alvin Toffler)

Private sector and institutional partnerships

Several factors are driving the need for closer partnerships with other educational institutions as well as with the private sector. The rapid pace of knowledge generation and the short shelf life of this knowledge make it imperative that educators share new information with colleagues in other institutions as well as to expand the pool of teachers from which students can choose. This is a particular concern for applied biology students - particularly those with interests that lie on the frontiers of such fields a molecular biology and biotechnology. "Inter-university and inter-departmental alliances offer a means to capitalize on individual university strengths and to reduce costs reflected in the duplication of efforts. Regional collaborative strategies should be explored as a means to keep pace with accelerated scientific advancement" (Lindley). Even universities in the West are hard pressed to maintain the critical mass of expertise on their faculties and the number of educational consortia and other alliances is growing rapidly.

Over and above the fact that the majority of university graduates will find employment in private corporations and a good knowledge of the needs and operations of this sector is important, partnerships with the private sector also offer additional advantages. "Universities may gain access to technology necessary for further advances in fundamental understanding, while industry may be able to improve a technology in preparation for eventual sale of products. This type of symbiotic relationship is at the heart of successful partnerships, and partnerships such as these hold great promise both in disseminating the results of basic research efficiently and in stimulating research that spans the widening gap between federally-funded basic research and industry-funded applied research and development" (U.S. House of Representatives, 1999).

It is also interesting to note that it is becoming increasingly common for private corporations to establish educational institutions of their own. In the United States, for example, "There is a huge boom in corporate universities. In the last thirteen years, the number of companies that have opened corporate universities grew from 400 to 1,800. Today 40% of Fortune 500 companies have established corporate universities and, if growth continues at the current rate, the number of corporate universities will exceed the number of traditional universities by the year 2010" (Fulton, 2001). These initiatives generally welcome the inputs of formal academics and partnerships can pay good dividends to academic departments and the educational organization.

Interestingly, the approach most often taken by these initiatives involves the application of information and communication technologies. "Industry [in the U.S.] has shifted to web-based training for workers. Traditional classroom-based training in corporate training is expected to continue to drop, representing only 64% of all corporate training in 2001" (Fulton, 2001). The formal educational sector has been advised to follow this lead.

New Education Strategies

"Advances in communications have transformed society before: movable type, photography and telegraphy, the telephone, television, and the fax machine have all pushed outward the limits of our ability to store and transmit knowledge. Now the convergence of computing and telecommunications appears ready to shatter those limits, making it possible to send vast amounts of information anywhere in the world in seconds - at an ever-decreasing cost. This new technology greatly facilitates the acquisition and absorption of knowledge, offering developing countries unprecedented opportunities to enhance educational systems, improve policy formation and execution, and widen the range of opportunities for business and the poor" (World Bank, 1999).

Perhaps more than any other factor, the rapid advances in information and communication technologies offer educational organizations the tools needed to respond to today's realities and challenges. They can play a huge role in the preparation and continuing education of applied biologists and other graduates. They are ideally suited to the rapid dissemination of knowledge from anyplace in the world to almost anyplace else and allow collaboration and discussion over vast spatial and temporal distances.

Skills in exploiting these technologies, the formation of strategic partnerships, and the application of distance learning approaches have the potential to allow educational institutions to offer quality educational programs in rapidly changing areas. They offer a mechanism to allow faculty to keep their knowledge and skills current and offer students a wider choice of expertise from which to choose. Successful educational institutions will realize these advantages and commit themselves to developing communication infrastructure and computer-based communication and education technologies. They must also recognize the importance and potential of learning models that use these technologies to develop human capital. Beyond the basic infrastructure, it is also extremely important that educational staff and students develop strengths in 2 fundamental areas - digital literacy and e-leaning.

Digital Literacy

Digital literacy is "The ability to access and take advantage of networked computer resources and to use and understand information as presented by computers" (Raab, 1999). The specific skills associated with digital literacy include the capacity to take advantage of such varied Internet communication resources as email, listservs, and online conferences. It includes being able to use a range of online search strategies and tools to locate and access important information. It involves using these tools to collaborate with others and also includes the skills required to learn online and take advantage of Internet-based learning opportunities. Acquisition of such skills is vital in today's world where the Internet is transforming business and education. As Fontaine (2001) states,

"The worst case scenario is that the digital divide will grow, economic inequality will increase both within and between countries, entrepreneurs not plugged into the global network will be unable to reach markets, and nations not online will fail to attract international investment, leaving regions with large populations facing an economic crisis of unparalleled proportions."

e-Learning

e-Learning is the most recent evolution of distance learning - a learning situation where instructors and learners are separated by distance, time or both. e-Learning is - Internet-enabled learning -, or - The use of network technologies to create, foster, deliver, and facilitate learning, anytime and anywhere.

e-courses vary tremendously in their structure. Some are little more than pages of plain text. Others use audio or even video lectures. Most are asynchronous, meaning that students can access materials and submit assignments at any time. Some are synchronous and require that students all log on at the same time to hear lectures or participate in discussions. The most basic (and least effective) only require the student to interact with the material. Good instructional design allows substantial interaction with others including the instructor and other students (Raab, 2000).

Capper (2001) lists the benefits to learning online that are unique to the medium:

• Any time. A participant can access the learning program at any time that is convenient -not just during the specific 1-3-hour period that is set for a conventional course. The episodes can be quick snatches at odd times or long late-night sessions. Cross-time-zone communication, difficult to arrange in real time, is as easy as talking to someone across town when using the Internet.
• Any place. The participants do not have to meet. That means they can be anywhere. International sharing is feasible. Individuals can log on at work, home, the library, in a community learning center or from their hotel when travelling.
• Asynchronous interaction. Unlike face-to-face or telephone conversations, electronic mail does not require participants to respond immediately. As a result, interactions can be more succinct and to-the-point, discussion can stay more on-track, and people can get a chance to craft their responses. This can lead to more thoughtful and creative conversations.
• Group collaboration. Electronic messaging creates new opportunities for groups to work together, creating shared electronic conversations that can be thoughtful and more permanent than voice conversations. Sometimes aided by on-line moderators, these net seminars can be powerful for learning and problem-solving.
• New educational approaches. Many new options and learning strategies become economically feasible through online courses. For instance, the technology makes it feasible to utilize faculty anywhere in the world and to put together faculty teams that include master teachers, researchers, scientists, and experienced professional developers. Online courses also can provide unique opportunities for teachers to share innovations in their own work with the immediate support of electronic groups and expert faculty.
  

A major result of all the forces discussed above - rapid technological changes in biology, communication, education, - is that higher education is becoming increasingly disaggregated (Fulton, 2001). The formal academic sector is finding it difficult to cope. Even with the availability of new tools, the job of educating and keeping agricultural professionals current is too big for the academic sector alone. In response, a number of intermediary organizations, with both a stake in seeing this effort succeed and a role to play in achieving it, have emerged and are offering a valuable service to hard-pressed educational institutions. Their role is to "help both students and providers create order out of potential educational chaos" (Twigg, 1996).

Role and benefits of Intermediaries

Education is becoming increasingly disaggregated, "New players are entering the educational arena, expanding the system in ways that will bring about vastly enhanced or entirely new educational services. We foresee a highly differentiated educational system that will address the needs of all types of learners in all types of environments" (Fulton, 2001).

This is good news for educational organizations. While, in the early days of e-learning, academic and industry pioneers were of necessity forced to build all the components themselves, today we see a tremendous growth in collaborative efforts between academic institutions and for-profit educational intermediaries (Baer. 1999).

In the most common model of such collaboration each partner provides specific services, "the academic partner develops the content, conducts the course (including course-related contacts with students), evaluates student performance, and awards appropriate degree credit or certification. The for-profit partner typically provides the hardware and software platforms for course development, maintains the Website on which instructional materials reside, and performs various record-keeping and other administrative functions. Some firms also provide technical support for courseware development and marketing" (Baer, 1999).

The Asia Pacific Regional Technology Centre (APRTC)

The APRTC is an example of an intermediary educational institution dealing with applied biology in relation to sustainable agriculture and focused on the needs and realities of the Asia-Pacific region. Its goal is to contribute to the welfare of Asia's farmers and the protection of the agricultural resource base upon which they depend. It does this through the promotion of sustainable agricultural practices and modern agricultural technologies, both of which are key products of applied biology. It provides opportunities for agricultural professionals to enhance and continuously update their knowledge and skills and increases access to knowledge resources, particularly those available through the Internet. It targets working agricultural professionals employed in multiple sectors: private, public, non-governmental, academic and development. Interactive e-learning is central to the vision of the APRTC. Interactivity is a key component and APRTC courses allow interaction with the content, between learners and between facilitators and learners. Courses are designed to ensure that even those with limited access to the World Wide Web can benefit. It brings together the expertise of a wide range of professionals in agriculture, development, academia, information technology and education.

Several practical, skills-based e-learning courses focused on extending knowledge about sustainable agriculture and good agricultural practice are either already available online or soon to be published. Courses currently completed or under construction include:

• Digital Literacy for Agricultural Professionals
• English for Agriculture
• Safe and Effective Use of Crop Protection Products
• Introduction to Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
• IPM for Cotton
• IPM for Irrigated Rice
• IPM for Vegetables
  

APRTC contributes to the development of capacity in applied biology in several ways:

• Provision of online training courses designed to develop digital literacy among applied biologists and other agricultural professionals.
• Delivery of online courses focused on enhancing technical skills of current and future professionals working in the development of applied biology or promoting the adoption (dissemination) of resulting products.
• Promoting interaction and communication between agricultural sectors involved in applied biology.
  

Summary and Conclusions

Capacity in applied biology is an extremely critical concern for both countries and private corporations. It has made, and continues to make, significant positive contributions to society and the revenue generated through the sale and licensing of its products has enriched those who invested in their development. Developing countries must not be left out of realizing the benefits of applied biology, either through developing indigenous products or taking advantage of discoveries made elsewhere, and must take the steps necessary to strengthen their capabilities in this critical area. This will require priority setting and investments in infrastructure, facilities, communication and, most important, education of the human capital upon which applied biology depends.

Most developing countries and their private companies are largely dependent on agriculture as the basis of their economies and profits. It follows then that the agricultural sector is where capacity building investments should be targeted and strengthening agricultural education is a priority. New information, communication and educational technologies can contribute much to this effort although much needs to be done to take advantage of the benefits they promise. Key factors include greater digital literacy and the ability to take advantage of e-learning opportunities. Also, given the general lack of financial resources, multisectoral and other innovative educational partnerships must be entered into. There now exist independent intermediary organizations that work to broker such partnerships and provide the expertise needed to survive and thrive in the new digital world. Developing countries can gain much from taking advantage of what they offer.

References

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